Part D:

Poster presentations

Contributions

Current socio-economic trends of organic plant and animal produce in Western Australia

C. Faiello, A. Pardini2 and L.C. Litjens.3

1 The Graduate School of Management - The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway Crawley, Western Australia ; 2 Department of Agronomy and Land Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine, 18, 50144 Firenze.; 3 Department of Arts – The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway Crawley, Western Australia 6009, PoBox 3364 Broadway, Nedlands Western Australia

Introduction

In recent years the trend for both the production and consumption of organic produce in Australia has increased considerably. This trend has been driven by a heightened awareness of health and environmental issues which has moved the concept of “organic” towards the mainstream. Organic farming has a beneficial effect on land-care and the conservation of the natural ecosystem, as it refrains from using chemicals and favours the sustainment of biodiversity (Hopkins and Hrabe, 2001; Pardini, 2002).

Whilst Australia remains behind Europe and the U.S.A. in terms of the volume produced, the effects of market changes in these two countries has had a positive influence on the Australian organic industry. Due to the larger population, organic produce is more widely available in the eastern states of Australia than in Western Australia where availability is still limited. However, the number of farms converting to organic throughout Australia is steadily increasing. For example, in the past 2 years the percentage of organic growers has increased by approximately 10% (Organic food & farming report, Australia 2003). Nevertheless, current prices for organic produce remain high when compared with conventionally grown products. A further increase in demand is therefore essential for the expansion in production and subsequently, a decrease in price for the consumer.

Materials and methods

The purpose of this research has been to highlight the availability and pricing of organic produce in the localities around Perth, Western Australia. Approximately 80% of the existing organic businesses in Perth participated in this survey. These businesses are located within a 15 km radius of the city. A number of shops were excluded from this study due to the uncertain origin of their organic produce.

Direct interviews were conducted with the managers and owners of the selected businesses. The produce available on the shelves was predominantly certified with BFA (Biological Farms of Australia) or NASAA (National Association for Sustainable Agriculture in Australia), the two largest organic associations in Australia. A final comparison in price was then made between conventionally and organically grown produce.

The controls undertaken were:

1. The prices of both organic and conventional foods: of 6 fruit categories comprised of 9 different varieties; 13 vegetable categories comprised of 17 varieties; 6 categories of dried fruits; 4 species of animals with 20 different cuts of meat; and cow’s milk);

2. Reasons for the limited availability of organic produce.

Results and discussion

The findings of this survey reveal the average cost of the products researched (Figure 1). Analysis of the data collected shows that on average, the price of organic goods is in excess of 100% when compared to conventional goods, with the exception of meat and milk which is considerably lower. Specifically, organic fruit is 108% more expensive than fruit grown with conventional methods; vegetables are128% more; dried fruits cost 138% more; while organic meat is 66 % more expansive, and milk 17%.

Figure 1: Comparison of organic and conventional food prices (average for categories). Prices are referred to in Euro and Australian $ (1 AUS $ = 0,563 Euro).

The reasons for both the limited availability and higher prices for West Australian organic food when compared to the same produce grown conventionally, are as follows:

· Higher production costs (particularly the first few years after conversion);
· Limited number of organic producers and retailers;
· Inexperienced organic farmers, therefore limited produce;
· Insufficient demand;
· Increased cost for those products transported from the eastern states of Australia and/or imported from overseas (e.g. USA, Europe).

Despite the higher prices for organic food, the quality of fruit and vegetable produce varies, as many farmers are still inexperienced. On the other hand, the quality of organically produced meat is consistently superior. This is confirmed by a dramatic increase in exported organic beef in the past two years (Organic food & farming report, Australia 2003).

Conclusions

An increased supply of organic produce would have a positive impact on both the social and economic spheres within Australia and particularly Western Australia. Firstly, food produced by utilising organic methods would lead to increased nutritional value. Secondly, an overall increase in the supply of organic food would result in a decrease in price. Thirdly, it would expand the export market overseas. Furthermore, of great importance would be the preservation of the environment as a whole. Finally, Western Australia with its abundance of agricultural land and its diverse climate would benefit greatly from this emerging organic industry.

While organic production in Australia is currently limited, the figure of 10% growth in the primary sector is very encouraging. The trend in Western Australia towards higher prices (as shown in this paper) only serves to reinforce the dire need for further education of both the consumer and organic producers. It is conclusive that education is paramount for the growth and success of the organic industry in Australia, which can only be achieved with the intervention and assistance of both Government and the private sector.

References

Hopkins A., Hrabe F., 2001. Organic grassland farming and nature conservation. Proc. VI meet. of the Europ. Grassl. Fed., 91-93.

Pardini A., 2002. Mediterranean pastoral systems and the threat of globalization. Invited Paper, FAO-CIHEAM XI meeting Mediterranean Pastures network, Djerba (Tunisia), October-November 2002.

Organic food & farming report, Australia 2003. Biological Farmers of Australia CO-OP LTD. Toowoomba QLD 4350.

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Organic farming in the Slovak Republic

O. Ondrašovičová1, M. Vargová1, O. Ondrašovič1, J. Kottferová1

and J. Juršík2

1University of Veterinary Medicine, Komenského 73, 041 81 Košice, 2State Veterinary Institute, Botanická 15, 842 52 Bratislava, the Slovak Republic

Introduction

Ecological agriculture in Slovakia is defined as a type of agricultural, characterised by economic exploiting and preservation of natural resources, maximisation of recycling of nutrients and energy, minimal use of substances and preparations that may pollute the environment and by natural livestock farming, based on natural needs and welfare requirements of animals, with regulated use of veterinary drugs. This definition indicates that it is an extensive agricultural production that requires considerable effort of farmers and institutions involved and, above all, a sufficient body of information about all difficulties that this system may bring and about the ways in which to prevent the most serious problems that these requirements may bring in everyday practice. It is also important to provide sufficient information about ecological farming and its products to potential consumers and domestic food processors.

Conversion of conventional farms to ecological ones, establishment and running of new farms and the related activities require considerable support from the government in different fields, including planning, legislation and support.

Development of organic agriculture in Slovakia

The development of organic agriculture in Slovakia is 15 to 20 years behind some other European countries. Organic farming in Slovakia was initiated in 1991 by the Ministry of Agriculture and Nutrition of the Slovak Republic, following the experience and development trend in West European countries. The rules of organic farming adopted in the Slovak Republic were based on the rules formulated by the IFOAM, and a Certification Commission was established to work in the legislative and regulatory area. Farms/production units (37 in 1991) that complied with the defined rules and conditions were granted subsidies for a three-year transition period at 10,000 Slovak Crowns (Sk) per hectare (1st year – 4,000 Sk per hectare, 2nd year – 3,500 Sk and 3rd year – 2,500 Sk). These producers were allowed to label their products as bioproducts only in 1994, after the completion of the conversion period. However, when they placed their produce on the market there was a little interest in these organic products. For this reason, they decided to export their products to the West European markets.

In 1995, the government of the Slovak Republic adopted a programme “The conception of ecological agriculture in Slovakia”. This fundamental document defined the plan for the organic agriculture in Slovakia by 2010 and proposed a set of measures to implement this plan .In 1998, there was a crucial change in the enforcement of the law concerning organic agriculture when the Act 224/1998 on Ecological Agriculture and Biofood Production was adopted. It entered into force the first of October, 1998. The system of subsidies was changed in 1999. In accordance with the Act 415/2002, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Inspection Institute have been designated as the bodies to control organic agricultural production and the production of biofoods. Inspections on farms are performed regularly according to the Act No. 415/2002 of the Code. The Ministry of Agriculture of the Slovak Republic is the executive body responsible for the development of organic agricultural production and production of biofoods, co-ordination of international collaboration in this field, inspection of organic agricultural production and production of biofoods, and other activities according to the Act. Inspection Institute (Central Agricultural Control and Testing Institute) – fulfils all the tasks specified by the Act, concerning inspection, evidence, and issuing certificates. The Inspection Office performs inspection of the subjects oriented on ecological production of food by the inspectors of ecological agriculture.

Agricultural land area and the number of farms involved in organic agriculture

According to information supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture, 84 ecological farms were registered in the Slovak Republic (SR)on the first of January 2003. They farmed 49,998.99 hectares of agricultural land, which represents approximately 2.13 % of the total agricultural land. Out of that 16,993.75 hectares are arable soil and 32,780.82 hectares permanent grassland. The number of farms and the farmed area was almost the same as in 1998 (82 farms, 50,615 ha) but lower than in the 1999–2000 period.

Currently, there are 29 organic livestock farms in the SR, with the following number of animals: cattle – 7,808; pigs - 0; poultry – 4,776 (layers). Organic farms produce about 42 types of bioproducts and biofoods including cereals (common wheat, spelt wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat), legumes (peas, horse bean), root crops (potatoes, beat, maize), oil crops (flax, sunflower, oil rape), forage crops, energetic forage, herbs and spices, cosmetics, fruit, cattle, sheep and poultry, milk products, and others. The majority of products of plant origin are exported to EU countries and Switzerland as raw, unprocessed products.

Organic animal husbandry in Slovakia

Livestock husbandry on organic farms is aimed at satisfying the stocks’ physiological, ethological and ethical requirements, according to special provisions, particularly with regard to:

- appropriate size of the herd;
- natural movement of animals in the fresh air and their simultaneous protection against bad weather;
- housing of animals with good access of fresh air and daylight and sufficient and
area for resting provided with bedding.

The following is not allowed:

- keeping cattle in housing systems with year-round tethering;
- keeping animals in cages with limited area for movement;
- confinement of animals in closed houses without access to run or pasture; and
- using parallel ways of keeping for animals of the same species and productive orientation which belong to the same herd and are housed in the same animal house.

Veterinary care in organic livestock production

Veterinary care is oriented particularly on therapeutic interventions, using natural treatment processes, if they correspond to the indication. In case of using conventional therapy, procedures leading to rapid improvement of health, prevention of spreading of infections and saving animal life should be applied. Evidence is kept of all therapeutic interventions, and animal products obtained during the treatment and the withdrawal period. The withdrawal period for products from treated animals is doubled.

It is prohibited:

- to administer drugs and general prophylactic preparations to healthy animals;
- to use hormonal synchronisation of oestrus;
- to use embryo transfer;
- to use interventions with embryo;
- to use hormonal preparations to stimulate the oestrus and ovulation; and
- to use genetic-engineering methods in animal reproduction and breeding.

Animals kept on organic farms may be vaccinated only with the agreement of the certification body and only in such situations when other anti-epizootiological measures are ineffective.

Some important health risks associated with organic livestock husbandry

The health risks associated with organic livestock husbandry depend on a number of factors, including animal species, size of the heard, pasture quality, climate and others (Juršík and Čuboň, 1999, Juršík et al., 2001). The most frequent diseases observed in organic stock are the following:

- non-infectious diseases associated with deficit of some elements; and
- conditions arising from certain biofactors or their complexes or from shortcomings in technology of feeding, grazing and housing.

The problems most frequently encountered in cattle include dysfunction of proventricula, grass tetany and muscle dystrophy and parasitic (invasive) diseases, sometimes termed pasture parasitoses, caused by protozoa (eimerioses), cryptosporidia, sarcocysts, helminths (Fasciola hepatica, Dictyocaulus viviparus, Taeniarhynchus saginatus, strongylidoses) and ticks (Ixodes ricinus).

Development of organic agriculture should support the following (Leibl, 2003):

- relationship between organic agriculture and the environment and animal welfare,
- consumer confidence in bioproducts and advertising,
- processing and marketing, and
- research, education and consulting.

References

Act No. 224/1998 of the Civil Code of SR on Ecological Agriculture and Biofood Production, effective from the 1st October, 1998.

Act. No. 415/2002 of the Civil Code of SR which amends and supplements the Act No. 224/1998 on Ecological Agriculture and Biofood production, effective from the 1st January, 2003.

Decree No. 3259/1999-100 of the Ministry of Agriculture of SR, effective from the 1st January, 2000.

Juršík, J., ?uboň, J., (1999): Ecological animal rearing (In Slovak), Bulletin of ecological agriculture 14, Ekotrend Myjava,

Juršík, J, Trávníček, P., Drgáč, M., (2001): Cattle rearing without market-production of milk under conditions of ecological agriculture (In Slovak). PRO-BIO Association of ecological agriculturalists, 109 pp.

Leibl, M., (2003): Perspectives of the development of ecological agriculture and agroenvironmental measures (In Czech). Náš Chov, 6, 19-22

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Organic farming in Latvia

E. Selegovska and L. Degola

Latvia University of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science

Introduction

Agricultural land occupies 39% of the total area of Latvia (2.5 million ha) and is mainly owned by the private sector. In terms of economy, small scale farms are characteristic for the agriculture of Latvia: on average, one rural farm has 12.4 hectares of agricultural land. About 40% population are engaged in agriculture. There are about 95,000 private farms in Latvia in total (64.8% small farms with 2-10 ha; 0,2% big farms with 100 ha and more).

Organic farming – current situation

Lately organic farming has started to develop. There are some 575 certified organic and in-conversion farms, with the total area of 24,000 ha, but many others do not use fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides due to lack of funds. Hence, the potential for organic conversion is great.

Figure 1: Organic and in-conversion farms in Latvia
Data source: “EQ” on 01.08.2003

Organic farming is developing alongside with the conventional agricultural production, allowing to diversify the employment of rural population and to earn extra income. Beginning of organic movement in Latvia was in 1989. The second period stared in 1995 when Association of Organizations of Organic Farming was founded. Association defined the national standards to organic production and established control institutions. Since 2001, certification and control system of organic production in Latvia complies with the EU. Certification of organic farms is carried out by the public body Environment Quality. Its operations comply with the Regulation 514 “On Circulation of Organic Agriculture Products and Procedure of Certification”.

Future growth potential

A very significant condition for further development of the organic farming in Latvia is the fast conversion to organic farming, taking place over the last three years.

Figure 2: Certified organic and in-conversion land area in Latvia
Data source: IFOAM, Ministry of Agriculture Republic of Latvia
* Data of “Environment Quality” on 1.08.2003.

In 2002 there were 355 organic farms, or farms converting their production to organic farming, but in 2003 conversion was started by more than 200 farms. Certified land and land in-conversion make up approximately 17,000 ha of agricultural land in 2002 and 24,000 ha in 2003, as compared to 160,000 ha in 1999.

Currently land area under organic and in-conversion management of total agricultural area in Latvia is only 1,0%, but the potential of land to be used for organic farming, could be 21% of agricultural land.

Figure 3: Certified organic and in-conversion land area of Latvia on 2003 (ha).
Data source: “EQ” on 01.08.03.

The major sectors of organic farming where the production of organic products is developed are cereal growing, horticulture and dairy farming.

Figure 4: Livestock production on orgnaic farms in Latvia.
Data source: “EQ” on 01.08.03.

The rapid growth of organic farming in Latvia has been fostered by the adoption of the amendments to the Law on Agriculture in 2001, where the concept “organic farming” was defined and direct payments to organic farms were assigned.

Marketing

The quantity of organic produce in the market in Latvia is currently in a stage of slow growth, because:

1) demand and number of consumers have grown, but;

2) prices of organic products are rather high;

3) entering into market of organic products is still complicated, marketing channels are not organized; and

4) majority of consumers do not recognize organic products.

The produce of organic farming has been sold at the same price or a little bit higher than the conventional farming produce. At the moment, organic farming in Latvia is orientated towards local market. Only few enterprises export their products, and these are not livestock products.

Table 1: Prices of organic animal products (Latvia, 2003)
Sausage, kg 7,00 Goose, kg 6,00

Consumer is the main agent in the development of organic agriculture, but a survey found lack of information about organic products in Latvia and that consumers appear to have little interest for organic products [is there a reference for this please?]. Association of Latvia Organic Agriculture Organizations established a label for organic products, which is being promoted in the food market.

State support for organic farming

Latvia government grants subsidies to farmers, researchers and advisory services. The main interest is in farm subsidies. Subsidies are given in different production systems and for different aims. The Ministry of Agriculture has increased interest in organic farming since 1998, and there are some possibilities to receive subsidies for organic farmers since 1999. About 520,000 EUR are budgeted for organic farmers in 2003. This money will be given to farmers, who are certificate in organic farming or in 2nd year in-conversion period, issued by public organization “EQ”.

State subsidies for development of organic farming slightly stimulate the sales of organic products, and it is suggested that the economic and financial conditions for the organic farming in Latvia are much better than for the whole farming system.

Table 2: State support to organic farming

Organic farming in Latvia is restricted by following obstacles:

· Lack of necessary techniques and equipment;
· Lack of financial resources;
· Deficit of organic auxiliary and raw materials;
· Farms are mainly located far from significant outlet centres;
· Difficult to organize stable supply of organic products to wholesale or retail;
· Fragmentation of farms makes difficult to co-operate in farming, processing and distribution of products;
· Intensive competition with producers of conventional farming;
· Lack of qualified labour force.

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Organic agriculture in Poland – legal and market aspects

J. Zastawny, H. Jankowska-Huflejt and B. Wróbel

Institute for Land Reclamation and Grassland Farming, Department of Meadows and Pastures, Falenty near Warsaw, Poland

Social and economic determinants of Polish agriculture

Agrarian politics of the last 10 years have caused a recession in Polish agriculture. Excessive imports of subsidised agricultural products from the European Union have resulted in poor profitability of domestic agriculture, in a declined demand for home-grown products and, consequently, in a decrease of farmers’ income.

High unemployment and poverty in the rest of the society have decreased the demand for food and worsened the overall situation of farmers and the food processing industry. The share of agricultural products of total exports decreased from 14.1% in 1990 to 10.3% in 1999. The decline of the parity of agricultural incomes in the last decade is remarkable: from 92% in 1990 to 57% in 1994 and 38% in 1999. Due to economic reasons, young people from rural areas have a restricted access to education – only 4% of students come from farming families, who constitute 38% of the whole of population. The area of barren and fallow lands has increased to reach 1.7 million ha in 2000. The lands are usually weed-infested and become overgrown by trees and shrubs. The consumption of mineral fertilisers has drastically declined. In the fiscal year 1991/1992, it amounted only 62.1 kg ha-1 NPK and in 2000 it was 85.8 kg ha-1 (nitrogen fertilisation of grasslands does not exceed 30-40 kg ha-1) and has a very unfavourable N:P:K ratio (Table 1).

Table 1: Consumption of mineral fertilisers in kg·ha–1 of croplands in Poland (Rocznik, 2001).

Now, the challenge is to adjust Polish agriculture to the competition on European markets after the accession of Poland to the European Union. Failing to do so will mean further deepening of the crisis and unemployment in the country.

Organic farming as a solution to Polish agricultural crisis

One of the means to restore the place of Polish agriculture in the national economy is the development of organic farms and the improvement of grassland management. The former may improve economic situation of farmers and decrease the unemployment. There are favourable natural and social conditions to develop organic farms in Poland, and organic products are sold at lower prices than those in the EU countries. Therefore, these products may have competitive advantage on the EU market.

Propagation of the idea of organic agriculture began in Poland at the break of the 1970s an 1980s. The development of organic farming is far less advanced in Poland than in some EU countries, though it has accelerated recently. Many training courses have been organised for farmers interested in organic methods of agricultural production. In consequence, some farmers have decided to convert their farms to organic production. But until the end of 1997, there was no state support for such a production, although as early as in 1990 the first 27 farms obtained appropriate certificates. The certificates were issued by “Ekoland” – the Association of Ecological Food Producers according to their own criteria.

Since 1993, the certificates for organic farms have been also granted by the Polish Society for Ecological Agriculture. In 1996, a certification body, named Agro Bio Test, was established and similar activity was undertaken in 1998 by Bioekspert.

However, the number of organic farms decreased between 1995 and 1997. They occupied 0.03% of the total cropland area in Poland. Recently, the situation has improved, particularly after the state budget began subsiding ecological crops and the costs of controlling ecological farms in the year 1999 (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: The number of controlled organic farms in Poland in years 1990-2002

In spite of a lack of legal regulations, the production carried out with organic methods has been subsided from the state budget since 1998. According to a decree of the Minister of Agriculture and Food Industry, financial support for the control of organic farms was directed to Agro Bio Test and the Polish Society for Ecological Agriculture. Later, the extension of support through direct subsidies to organic crops and control costs was planned in “Middle-Range Strategy for the Development of Agriculture and Rural Areas” - a document adopted by the Government on April 21st 1998.

Legal foundations of organic farming in Poland

In 1998, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, supported by the Team for Ecological Agriculture, initiated works on the project of an act on organic agriculture and on detailed regulations to this act. Resultant was the Act on Organic Agriculture of 16th March 2001 (Dz. U. 2nd May 2001, No. 38 poz. 452).

The act adjusted domestic regulations to those of the European Union i.e. to the Decree of the EC Council No. 2092/91 of June 24th 1991 on organic agriculture and its products and to the Decree of the Council No. 1804/99 of June 19th 1999, which supplemented the latter with the regulations on animal production.

Organic agriculture was defined indirectly through describing agricultural production with organic methods. The regulations involved agricultural production and food processing with organic methods, the system of controlling certificates for production and processing and the market for and labelling of organic products. According to the act, organic agriculture differs from other methods of management by using:

- crop rotation and other natural methods of maintaining and increasing biological soil activity,
- organic fertilisers, plant protection measures and fodder obtained in a way different from the industrial chemical synthesis,
- seeds and seedlings obtained from plants, which were cultivated for at least one generation (in the case of perennials – for at least two vegetative seasons) under conditions of ecological production, and
- election of species and breeds naturally resistant to diseases, particularly using local populations and breeds.

Fulfilment of the defined conditions puts some restrictions on producers as to the purchase of seeds and farm animals, which, according to the act, should come from ecological crops and farms. With the increasing number of farms and increasing demand for organic products, this might be a significant obstacle to the development of organic agriculture in Poland due to the lack of seed plantations and limited supply of farm animals that would meet the requirements of organic production.

The need for controlling environmental status, not required by the EU regulations, may arise some doubts. According to the act, an organic farm ought to be situated in the area, where concentrations of harmful substances do not exceed permissible levels. This requirement is associated with high costs and, moreover, it may be used to raise the unsubstantiated claims that soils in Poland are polluted and that their usefulness for food production should be verified, farm by farm, when organic conversion is planned.

The act adopted principles of supporting producers in the period of transformation and management of organic farms, which differ from those in the EU countries. In the latter, organic agriculture is subsided within the agricultural and environmental programmes (the decree No. 1257/1999) and results from unquestionable and positive effect of this type of agriculture on the environment.

In regard to permanent grasslands, the act on organic agriculture is focused generally on recommendations that grasslands should be managed in agreement with the principle of rational development of agricultural production by using natural means of production and should secure permanent soil fertility and healthy plants and animals. But in 2003, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development began a widespread action promoting organic agriculture including fodder production on grasslands using organic methods within the PHARE project (PL01.04.04. – Komp.7). The authors of this presentation participate in the ministerial programme and are responsible for the preparation of training materials (instructions) for advisors and farmers. These materials will be used during the training courses foreseen in the programme.

The control of organic farms

The system of controlling and certification introduced by the act on organic agriculture is a state/private system that involves:

- the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development as an institution licensing private certification units to carry the control and to edit certificates.
- Particular licenses are issued by:
o the minister appropriate for agriculture – within the scope of agricultural production and acquisition of wild plants or their parts,
o the minister appropriate for agricultural market – within the scope of processing ecological products,
o the Inspectorate of Market Quality of Food Products, which is a supervising institution over the agriculture certifying units,
o institutions licensed to certify organic agriculture.

In accordance with the act, in 2002, the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development licensed four institutions to carry the control, issue and withdraw certificates:

- Polish Centre for Research and Certification (PCBC),
- AGRO BIO TEST Ltd.,
- BIOEKSPERT, and
- The Institution for Certification of Organic Production Ltd. (PNG).

The farms are inspected at least once a year by the institution that issues certificates. According to the act, the producer, who aims at carrying an organic farm applies to the certifying institution in writing and delivers:

- a statement that production will be carried out with organic methods,
- information on the type and amount of products that are to be produced with organic methods,
- description of the farm with the location of grounds, buildings and production means,
- an extract from the grounds record pertaining to the farm,
- a certificate stating that permissible concentrations of harmful substances have not been exceeded in the farm grounds (issued by the local Inspectorate for Environmental Protection in the case of air and water pollution and by the chemical-agricultural station in the case of soil pollution by heavy metals),
- description of actions that should necessarily be undertaken during transformation of the farm to organic production.

Conversion of farms lasts two years but the period may be shortened to one year for grasslands upon the agreement of the certifying institution and on the condition that plant protection chemicals and forbidden fertilisers have been not applied in the last three years.

Annotation on food labelling in the Polish act differs from that in the decree of EU No. 2092/91. The latter requires that organic products be labelled with the name of producer or his trade mark together with the code of certifying institution. The number of certificate is not required, however, in contrast to Polish regulations. A scheme of labelling the products of organic agriculture according to the act should contain:

- a notation “the product of organic agriculture”,
- producer’s name,
- the number of certificate,
- the name of certifying institution, and
- identity number of certifying institution.

Legal regulations determine also the principles of distribution of organic products and hold the distributors responsible for separation of raw materials and products of organic agriculture and for transporting them in closed containers labelled with information on producer and certifying institution.

Legal acts that regulate production, processing, certification, control and market of products of organic agriculture in Poland largely agree with the respective acts of the EU countries. This should allow for the dynamic turnover of these products between Poland and the EU countries, particularly in view of the prospect development of organic agriculture stimulated by the subsidies.

Organic farms in numbers in Poland

Certifying bodies controlled 1,977 farms in 2002 (by 10.6% more than in 2001) and 18 food processing companies (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2: Ecological farms in particular voivodships in Poland in 2001.

Figure 3: The number of certified farms by certification organisation in Poland in 2002.

Total area of the farms certified in 2002 was 53,515.4 ha, which means a 19.2% increase as compared with the year 2001 (Table 2). The area of croplands in the analysed year was 43,828.2 ha. 882 farms (of a combined area of 24,412.5 ha) out of 1,977 certified obtained the certificate of agreement. It means that these farms used ecological methods of production. There were 505 farms (13,522.2 ha) in the second year of conversion and 590 farms (15,580.7 ha) in the first year.

Table 2: The structure of ecological farms and their area in ha in Polish voivodeships (province)

Areas of ecological crops and those during conversion in particular voivodeships are shown in Figure 4. Basic crops like arable crops, vegetables, orchards, berry plantations and grasslands covered 40,720.7 ha in the year 2002 (Table 3).

Table 3: Basic crops (in ha) in certified farms and in those during transformation

Most certified farms were situated in świętokrzyskie (388), lubelskie (253), mazowieckie (232) and podkarpackie (231) voivodeships (province). Certified farms covered the largest area in zachodnio-pomorskie (8,276.35 ha), warmińsko-mazurskie (7,772.68 ha), podkarpackie (7,098.98 ha) and małopolskie (5,111.82 ha) voivodeships. Mentioned areas constituted 52.8% of those in the remaining voivodeships.

Figure 4: Area of organic crops in year 2002 (ha) in Poland

Land use on organic farms

The largest areas were covered by arable crops (20,203.6 ha) and grasslands (18,283.6 ha), the smallest – by orchards (622.3 ha). Percentage share of certified crops is presented in Figure 5 and that of certified and in-conversion crops Figure 6.

The size of farms

Most numerous (1,550) were small farms (up to 5 ha, from 5 to 10 and from 10 to 20 ha), which comprised 78% of the total number. The farms larger than 50 ha constituted 7.7% of the total number. The structure of farms is presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Structure of organic farms in Poland in 2002

Subsidies

Subsidies have been paid to organic farmers in Poland since 1999. 1,910 farms were subsided in 2001 (supported crops and the costs of control). Subsided crops covered an area of 30,353.1 ha in the year 2002, i.e. by 62.9% more than in 2001 (Figures 8 and 9). The size of aid for organic farms and for farms converting to organic farming is shown in Table 5.

Figure 8: Subsided organic crops (in ha) in 2001 and 2002 in Poland.

Figure 9: Percentage share of the subsidies to particular organic crops in Poland.

Table 5: Aid for organic farms and for farms converting to organic farming (according to Annex No. 17 of the Decree of May 22nd 2002)

Poland’s contribution to organic agriculture in the EU

Ecological croplands covered 43,828 ha in Poland in 2001, which made 0.26% of the total cropland area in the country and the number of ecological farms (1,977) equalled 0.1% of the total number of farms. Ecological croplands in Poland covered an area equal to 1% of the respective croplands area in the EU countries (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Organic agriculture in the EU and Poland

Summary

Agriculture in Poland differs between regions in the natural and economic conditions and in the type of infrastructure. This will markedly affect the dynamics of economic processes in particular regions, including the development of organic agriculture in Poland. Low consumption of mineral fertilisers and plant protection chemicals, hence a more extensive character of agricultural production as compared with that in many other EU countries should favour this development.

An increasing interest in organic food is noteworthy. This phenomenon will intensify in the future, as consumers are more inclined to buy healthy food of highest quality, devoid of conserving agents and pollutants.

To achieve a higher share in the food market, one has to guarantee the consumers that the food they buy meets their expectations. It is thus necessary to create certification system based upon the act on organic agriculture to adjust domestic legislation to that in the EU countries. Only then Polish products of organic agriculture could be sold in both domestic and European market.

It should be pointed out that after Polish accession to the European Union, a large part of farmers will be forced to leave conventional agriculture. Greater labour consumption in organic agriculture, together with the increasing demand for organic products, may create more available workplaces.

In conclusion, the Polish legislation on organic agriculture has regulated main problems pertaining to organic production, food processing with organic methods, labelling and distribution of organic products and, first of all, the system of controlling. Further development of organic agriculture in Poland will depend on common advisory and training services, on the activity of research institutes and on financial support from the state budget directed to production and control.

References

Gutkowska K., Żakowska-Biemans S.: Rolnictwo ekologiczne w Polsce i na świecie. Aspekty prawne, terminologiczne, rynkowe. (Organic agriculture in Poland and in world. Low, terminological and market aspects) Wieś i Rolnictwo, Nr 1/114/ 2002.

Jankowska-Huflejt H., Zastawny J., Okularczyk S., 2002. Gospodarowanie na użytkach zielonych jako wskaźnik rozwoju rolnictwa w Polsce (Grasslands utilisation as indicator of agriculture development in Poland). Woda-Środowisko-Obszary Wiejskie t. 2 z. 1 (4) s. 11-18.

Rolnictwo ekologiczne w Polsce w 2002 roku. (Organic agriculture in Poland in 2002) WWW.ijhar-s.gov.pl –Wydział Ekologii Rolniczej

Rolnictwo i gospodarka żywnościowa w Polsce (Agriculture and food economy in Poland), 2001. Warszawa: Ministerstwo Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi,

Runowski H.: Ograniczenia i szanse rolnictwa ekologicznego (Limits and chances of organic agriculture). Wydaw. SGGW. Warszawa 1996.

Ustawa: O rolnictwie ekologicznym, (Regulation: Organic agriculture) 2001. Dz. Ustaw Nr 38 z dnia 2 maja 2001r., poz. 452.

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The economy of organic livestock production enterprises in Andalusia, Spain – two case studies

R.G. Trujillo1, J. Fernández2, T. Haba2 and P. Blázquez2

1 Research an Education Center on Organic Agriculture and Rural Development of Granada

C / Pablo Iglesias s/n. 18320 Santa Fe, Granada, Spain.

2 Producer

Introduction

Organic livestock production in Andalucía is not a well-developed sector. The main exploitations are cattle, sheep and goat systems, primarily dedicated to meat production. These are extensive systems, based on grazing and browsing of grass and bushes, or integrated in different crops, like the case of sheep in olive groves or hens in citrus orchards.

The present work is based on two case studies from the county of Cordoba.

Case 1. Integrated organic sheep and pig production in an agroforestry system in Cordoba

The enterprise is located in a region with an extensive surface of agroforestry, named dehesa. The dehesa is constituted of oaks (Quercus ilex) in densities between 40-50 trees/ha, whit grasses covering the floor. In the system, two main livestock combinations are found: pig-sheep and pig-cattle, both dedicated to meat production. The principal animal breeds are Iberian autochtonous pigs crossbred with Duroc Jersey pigs, Merino sheep and various cattle breeds and crosses. The main feed for rumiants is are grass with tree prunings and hay produced in the dehesa, while acorns from the oaks are reserved for pigs.

The case study system is an exploitation of 38.7 ha with Iberian pigs and Merino sheep. A total of ten sows produce some 108 piglets per year. Between 25 and 40 of them are left on the property to fatte, depending on acorn production. The rest of piglets are sold after weaning. The 125 Merino sheep are crossed with male Fleischaft and Landchaf, in order to improve meat characteristics of lambs. Sheep produce on average 1.5 lambs per year. These are weaned at the age of 2.5 to 3 months and at 22 kg of liveweight. The mean livestock density on the property is between 0.66 – 0.57 CU/ha, a little lower than on conventional adjacent farms.

The farmer does not deworm animals, neither apply vaccine, nevertheless problems, such as brucellosis, enterotoxemia or parasitism are not present on the farm, despite of being usual problems on the conventional farms of the region.

Some data of the production and sale prices are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Animal sales and prices on the first case study farm

The economic performance of the exploitation in shown in Table 2. At the present time, this exploitation is not receiving premium price for its products because they are sold in the conventional market, due to difficulties in establishing marketing channels for its organic products.

Table 2: Economic performance of the firs case study farm (values in €)

In the case of the lambs sold as organic and according to the prices in organic market at the cities near the enterprise, the benefit for that would be increased to 468 and 384 €/ha, for good and bad year of acorn production, respectively.

Cost of carcass lamb production was 4.18 €/kg, sale price of lamb carcass at enterprise level (without premium price) was 5.45 €/kg and the possible price with premium price would be 7.09 €/kg if the lamb was sold as organic to a wholesaler company.

Case 2. Lamb production in olive grove at Cordoba county.

This enterprise is located at the north of the county of Cordoba. In this region, there are extensive areas planted with organic olive groves and meadows. Currently, there are 12,225 ha of organic olive groves and 3,404 ha of organic meadows (CAAE, 2002).

In a survey carried aout in the area, it was found that 86.9% of the organic olive grove enterprises had some type of livestock for weed control, while in convetional olive groves, livestock was used only in 30.8% of them (Alonso, 2003).

The study case is an enterprise that consists of two units. One of them is a 58 ha olive grove and the other a 38 ha of meadow farm (dehesa). The olive grove has a density of 129 trees/ha. The olive unit is divided in four areas that allow the management of olive groves and livestock. The livestock unit is a flock of 200 Merino sheep and 7 horses. Sheep arrive at the olive grove by the middle of December and remain there until the end of March. If the year is rainy enough, they can remain until May, returning again to the meadow where they feed with natural grasses, acorns and hay.

The four parcels of the olive grove unit are of similar size and they are managed in the following way:

- Parcel 1: Prune olive trees (every four years).
- Parcel 2: Apply organic matter from compost made with oil by-products and manure from sheep and horses.
- Parcel 3: Sow vetch (Vicia sativa) as green manure and feed for sheep.
- Parcel 4: Clear branches of olive trees to avoid fungi.

Sheep always enter in parcel 1 where they eat grasses and olive grove prunings, remaing in this parcel for some 60 days. Later on, they enter in parcel 4, grazing grass and olive leaves from foliage. In this parcel, they stay for some 45 days and, finally, in April they move into parcel 3 to graze vetch, sown in October. Sheep do not enter in parcel 2, because after the pruning, olive regrows are tender and sheep can damage these new branches. This parcel is grazed by horses that remain in the olive grove all the year around.

Sheep mate naturally and in groups of 40 in order to maintain lambs supply for the market during the whole year. Sheep are supplemented to stimulate gestation with 0.5 kg/day of organic concentrates 15 days before mating. Sheep fertility is at about 1.5 lambs per sheep per year. Lambs are weaned at two months of age with about 22-23 kg live weight. In this period, each lamb eats about 20-25 kg of organic concentrates.

The stock has not been vaccinated or dosed with anthelmintics for seven years. They do not have problems with brucellosis, tuberculosis, lamb diarrheas or enterotoxemia, which are common in conventional enterprises in the area. Problems with pneumonia in sheep have been solved by delaying shearing until mid May. External parasites have disappeared since tail docking of sheep was discontinued. If external parasites are detected on any individual animal, it is separated for two or three days and treated with home-made soap. Lamb mortality is around 5-10%, mainly due to premature birth and lack of milk in the dams.

Lamb production is 6,480 kg live weight per year (68.2 kg/ha). In addition, three foals are produced every year. Oil production is approximately 20,000 kg per year. A detailed description of the enterprise can be found in Garcia Trujillo (2002b).

In this case, oil and lamb production receive premiun prices. The producer sells carcass lambs in vacuum packs directly to organic stores.

The economic balance (Table 3) shows an important benefit for this exploitation, where animal production contributes with 27.7% of total profit. Profit/cost rate is high, with valuesof 2.34 €, 1.49 € and 2.02 € of profit per spent euro in the olive grove system, sheep system and total system, respectively.

In a recent study carried out in this region comparing organic and conventional olive grove production (Alonso, 2003), a profit/cost rate of 0.84 € in the organic system and 0.28 € in the conventional one was reported. The difference between our study case and this one is due to a higher oil production per ha and a 24% lower production cost, mainly due to the synergy produced by the sheep inclusion (a very well integrated system) and to the direct lamb marketing.

Table 3: Economical balance of an integrated sheep-olive grove production system (values in €)

In this system, lamb carcass production cost is 5.24 €/kg, lamb carcass packed in vacuum sale price to retailers is 10.70 €/kg and final sale price to public is 14.23 €/kg.

Discussion

In both studies of organic lamb production, lamb mortality was low and, in general, around 5%, although some years it can rise up to 10%, despite of the fact that the main lamb health problems in the area are not present in the two enterprises. In a present work in conventional sheep and meat goat exploitations in Granada county, we have found high levels of diarrhoea and white muscle disease in lambs and kids. Lamb mortality is 19.40% (±0.09) and mediactions, vaccines and veterinary cost are 4.39% (±3.28) of total cost (between 0.6-11%), while in the analyzed organic enterprises, cost related to illness was 0.6%. These data suggest that there are animal health advantages of organic systems, either by death rate reduction and in minor medication costs.

Lamb production allows comparisons between cases 1 and 2 and with conventional lamb production. Cost of production is smaller in the organic system. Generally, the organic farms spend less on concentrates than conventional ones, although conditions are not completely comparable (Table 4).

Table 4: Lamb production cost and sale prices in diffrent points of market chain (€/kg carcass)

It should be noted that, in Case 2, if the producer sold alive lambs as organic to a processor company, he/she could sell the production at 7.46 €/kg of carcass to maintain public sale price at 14.23 €/kg. Conventional sucking lamb type with a carcass weight of 7-9 kg is sold at 15.24 €/kg in final market. This price is higher than organic. On the other hand, conventional lamb producers sell lambs below the production cost, or for very low profit based on production grants. Many of these conventional enterprises only cover a low wage for the owner.

References

Alonso, A. 2003. “Análisis de la sustentabilidad agraria: El caso del olivar en la Comarca de Los Pedroches (Córdoba)”. Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Córdoba.

CAAE .2002. Estadísticas del Comité Andaluz de Agricultura Ecológica.

García Trujillo, R. 2002a. “Dehesa ecológica en Villanueva de Córdoba” en “La Práctica de la Agricultura y Ganadería Ecológica”, pag. 311-315. Edit. Comité Andaluz de Agricultura Ecológica, España.

García Trujillo, R. 2002b. “Integración entre olivar y ganadería: la finca ecológica Santa Casilda en Los Pedroches” en “La Práctica de la Agricultura y Ganadería Ecológica”, pag. 305-309. Edit. Comité Andaluz de Agricultura Ecológica, España.

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Organic livestock production and marketing of organic animal products in Austria

S. Wlcek1, M. Eder2 and W. Zollitsch1

University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, 1 Institute of Livestock Sciences, 2 Institute of Agricultural Economics, Gregor Mendel-Str. 33, A-1180 Vienna.

Introduction

In Austria, about 298,000 ha of agricultural area (without alpine pastures) was cultivated organically in 2002, which is about 11% of total agricultural acreage. Two thirds of this area is permanent grassland, and is situated in the mountainous regions of Austria. During the last few years, organic permanent grassland area have remained constant, while the area of organic arable land has been growing. This development reflects the fact that arable farms are more profitable than grassland farms due to high demand for cash crops, while marketing of organic milk and beef is reaching its limits.

Organic livestock in Austria

In 2001, 12.8% of all Austrian dairy farms were organic and kept 14.6 % of all dairy cows. About a quarter of all suckler cows and sheep (24.2 % and 25.4 %), respectively, were on organic farms. Compared to conventional farms, the size of organic dairy herds, suckler cow herds and sheep flocks was larger, while pig herds and chicken flocks were smaller (Table 1). During the last few years, organic dairy stock has decreased, while sheep and pig stock has remained constant and chicken stock increased markedly. There is an obvious trend from dairy to suckler cows, probably because of the difficult market situation for organic milk and milk products (in 2000, the degree of self-sufficiency in organic milk was 112 %; Hamm et al. 2002).

Table 1: Organic livestock compared to total Austrian livestock 2001 (Source: BMLFUW 2002)

Marketing and consumption of organic animal products

About 14% of total milk production (470,000 tons) and 18.3 % of sheep and goat meat (1,500 tons), respectively, come from organic farms, while EU average is only 1.5% and 0.8%, respectively. The Austrian market could not cope with these large amounts, therefore, not more than 50, 46 and 33% of milk, beef and sheep/goat meat, respectively, could be sold as “organic“. By contrast, 80, 89 and 89% of organic pork, poultry and eggs, respectively could be sold as organic (Hamm et al. 2002).

In Austria, a very important marketing channel for organic products is public canteens. About 80 public canteens (hospitals, schools, the army) are using organic products to provide for 15,000 customers per day. It is demanded by a resolution of the Lower Austrian provincial government that at least 25% of all commodities (volume based) have to be organic. Main products are milk and dairy products, bread, beef and seasonal fruits and vegetables (Kaiblinger 2003, Raffeiner 2003). Kicker (2003) estimates the share of organic beef marketed to public canteens to be 27% of the overall beef put on the market.

Performance and health of organic livestock

Schwarzenbacher (2001) compared 261 organic and 2245 conventional Simmental dairy herds in Lower Austria and found lower milk yields in organic dairy farms (-423 kg), but organic cows with a higher longevity (+0,33 y) than conventional ones (Table 2). Milk protein content was roughly 0.1 % lower in organic than in convetional dairy cows (Schwarzenbacher 2001, Zollitsch et al. 2003), probably due to the smaller amounts of concentrates fed to organic cows. Concerning animal health, organic farmers see improvements rather than a deterioration after conversion, with leg disorders being an exception (Figure 1). Omelko and Schneeberger (2003) evaluated 94 and 388 organic and conventional pig farms, respectively, by questionnaires. They found that only 51% and 85% of organic farms keeping growing pigs and sows, respectively, record the performance of their pigs (Table 3).

Table 2: Comparison of herd performance of organic as compared to conventional Simmental cows (Source: Schwarzenbacher 2001)

Table 3: Comparison of herd performance of organic as compared to conventional pigs (Source: Omelko and Schneeberger 2003)

Figure 1: Farmer perception concerning animal health status after conversion to organic production on Austrian dairy farms (Schwarzenbacher, 2003).

References

Baumgartner H., Leeb T., Gruber T., Tiefenbacher R. (2002). Pig health and health planning in organic herds in Austria. In: Hovi M. and Vaarst M. (eds.): Proc. 5th NAHWOA workshop, Rødding, 11-13/11/2001, Univ. Reading, UK, 126-131

BMLFUW (2002). Grüner Bericht 2001. Bericht über die Lage der österreichischen Landwirtschaft. Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft, Wien.

Council of the European Union (1999). Council Regulation (EC) No 1804/1999 of 19 July 1999 supplementing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs to include livestock production. Official Journal L 222, 24/08/1999 p. 0001-0028.

Freyer B., Eder M., Schneeberger W., Darnhofer I., Kirner L., Lindenthal T., Zollitsch W. (2001). Der biologische Landbau in Österreich – Entwicklungen und Perspektiven. Agrarwirtschaft 50(7):400-409

Hamm U., Gronefeld F., Halpin D. (2002). Analysis of the European market for organic food. School of management and business, Univ. of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Kaiblinger K. (2003). Personal communication.

Kicker O. (2003). Personal communication.

Omelko M., Schneeberger W. (2003). Betriebsvergleiche mit den Buchführungsdaten 2000 und Wirtschaftlichkeitsfragen der biologischen Schweinehaltung. 2nd interim report, proj. 1268, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, Vienna, Austria

Raffeiner S. (2003). Personal communication.

Schwarzenbacher H. (2001). Vergleich von biologischen mit konventionellen Milchviehbetrieben in Niederösterreich. Diploma thesis, Dep. Livestock Sci., Univ. Nat. Resources a. App. Live Sci., Vienna, Austria

Zollitsch W., Wlcek S., Souren N. (2003). Unpublished report in connection with the INTERREG-project “Qualitätsoptimierung Rind”, Vienna, Austria



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Rearing healthy meat sheep at a reasonable cost: the Redon-Orcival project in France

M. Benoit, G. Laignel and J. Cabaret

INRA, Laboratoire d'économie de l'élevage, 63122 Saint Genès Champanelle, France

INRA, Bioagresseurs Santé Environnement, 37380 Nouzilly, France.

Introduction

The French ovine population has been continuously decreasing at a rate of 1% since 1981 and 85% of the ewes are located on farms in difficult environmental conditions (altitude, climate and soil). The average income of a lamb producing farm was 8,600€ in 1999, this being the lowest farm income in the high altitude zones (>600 m) (Benoit and Laignel, 2002). Organic farming, offering higher income, is potentially an alternative for breeders in these disadvantaged zones.

Organic lamb production in France has grown to 3.5 times the level recorded five years ago. Since 2000, the farmers have had to follow the specifications of the European Union, complemented by the French regulations. The main constraints are: the concentrate proportions limited to 30-40% of the daily ration, fattening of lambs on pastures, limitation of treatments and the ban on hormonal treatments for heat synchronising. Depending on the type of farm, each of these limitations may play an important role. In the mountain zones, each one may be a real difficulty, but the main problems appeared to be 1) lambing outside the natural lambing season, e.g. from January to April (without hormonal treatment and with the necessity to consume large amounts of concentrates) and 2) the management of helminth infections on pastures (Cabaret, 2003; Cabaret J., Mage C., Bouilhol, 2002).

Most of the information available on organic farming is available from private farms, which limits the range of investigations. Two experimental farms at INRA Theix were available for conversion and they provided a unique opportunity to perform either systemic (Redon, 800 m above sea level) or analytic experiments (Orcival, 1100 m).

Materials and methods

The study sites characterisics

The sheep belong to the Limousine breed. They have the same genetic background as they were bred in Redon, and the progeny in excess .was progressively introduced in Orcival. All sheep were reared extensively during the 10 years preceding the organic conversion. The stocking rate is 0.75 livestock unit/ha while the potential in local conventional systems is 1.2. A brief description of the two sites is given in Table 1.

Table 1: A description of INRA Redon and Orcival sites.

Flock records

The prolificity, mortality of ewes and lambs, weight of lambs, prices at which they were sold, were recorded. The gross margin per ewe was calculated. Faecal samples were taken monthly in order to assess the parasitological status of the ewes and lambs by an indirect method based on the numeration of nematode eggs per gram of faeces (EPG). Coccidiosis in lambs was studied on several occasions (species and oocysts counts in lamb faeces). A general linear model (GLM) statistical procedure was used for comparisons of EPG. Necropsies were also performed to identify the helminth species at the end of each grazing season on at least 3 animals of each flock.

Results

Organic versus low input conventional (O1 vs O2)

The reproduction performances were similar, but much fewer pathogenic problems were recorded in the organic flock. For example, lamb deaths were recorded in the conventional system after turning out in 2002. These were probably linked to coccidiosis The GLM estimated EPG (strongyles) were nearly identical during three at 38 and 34 eggs per gram of faeces.

Three lambings versus two lambings every two years (R1 vs R2)

The results were similar in both groups as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Production and mortality rates and economic returns in two flocks reared organically

The GLM estimated EPG were 80 eggs (1 lambing each year) and 161 eggs (3 lambings in two years).

General evolution of the flocks (O3 versus others)

The O3 (traditional with cattle mixed grazing) flock was not fully evaluated for zootechnical and economic parameters, as it was in very different situation (mixed grazing with cattle, no lambs on pasture). The strongyle nematode species composition did evoluate during the four years of study in all the flocks except O3. The number of species was reduced in all the flocks except O3. The following evolutions were recorded in the R1, R2, O1 and O2 flocks during the four year study:

- Teladorsagia : no change;
- Haemonchus : rare, no change;
- Cooperia curticei : strong decrease;
- Trichostrongylus axei : strong decrease; and
- Trichostrongylus colubriformis : decrease.

The intensity of infection was reduced in all groups except O3 .

Discussion

The conversion from conventional to organic was achieved without great difficulties, as shown by flock performances, economic returns and internal parasites records. This might be due to the fact that these flocks were not reared intensively before conversion. Gross margins in 2002 were similar to those recorded in the organic private farms (76€) of the region (Benoit and Laignel, 2002).

All the flocks that were technically managed differently before conversion became highly similar in their performances. The changes were important both in Orcival (no more mixed grazing with cattle in O2 and O3, ewes and lambs grazed together, production of heavier lambs) and in Redon (reduction of the number of helminthic treatments, intensification of reproduction effort). The information and guidance given to the shepherds and workers were homogeneous. This support was a new feature, as the staff had received limited guidance to run the flock before conversion. This is indicative of a strong human factor that may influence the technical results and, hence, economic returns. This proposal is also corroborated by the improving results from one year to another in the same flock, as if learning to manage better was the main factor for flock production improvement. The study undertaken included a large array of specialists (from soil/pasture to meat quality) and there is a need to gather all information for constructing a more holistic evaluation of the flock production systems.

Acknowledgements

We thank the staff of both experimental farms for their efficient help. Financial help of CIAB (INRA Committe for Organic Agriculture) and FEOGA is acknowledged.

References

Benoit M., Laignel G. (2002) Constraint under organic farming on French sheep meat production: a legal and economic point of view with an emphasis on farming systems and veterinary aspects. Veterinary research, 33, 600-613.

Cabaret J. (2003) Animal health problems in organic farming: subjective and objective assessments and farmer' actions. Livestock Production Science, 80, 99-108

Cabaret J., Mage C., Bouilhol M. (2002) Helminth intensity and diversity in organic meat sheep farms in centre of France. Veterinary Parasitology, 105, 33-47.

Organic livestock production in Norway

Britt I. F. Henriksen

Norwegan Centre for Ecological Agriculture, N – 6630 Tingvoll, www.norsok.no,

Phone: +47 71532013, fax: +47 71532001, e-mail: britt.i.f.henriksen@norsok.no

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